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Implications of cerebral autoregulation as an early predictor in rat model with post-cardiac arrest brain injury

초록/요약

Catastrophic post-cardiac arrest syndrome (PCAS) may lead to post-cardiac arrest brain injury (PCABI) that is the cause of death in 68% of patients who experience out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (CA) and 23% who develop in-hospital CA. Despite accounting for only 2% of body weight, the brain receives 15–20% of the total cardiac output to maintain tissue homeostasis. The viability of brain tissue is largely dependent on a consistent supply of oxygen and energy substrates, namely glucose, and the cessation of cerebral blood flow (CBF) results in an immediate interruption of brain activity. As such, monitoring of the brain is important for PCABI prognosis, and early prediction of the degree of brain damage should be a priority. However, a method of prognostic testing during the target temperature management (TTM) period has not yet been identified, as the state at the beginning of TTM is very similar to that of comatose after cardiac arrest. So far, a multimodal approach is generally adopted to evaluate neurological outcomes after the TTM period (at least 72 h), along with clinical examinations, electrophysiological studies, blood biomarker evaluation, and neuroimaging to improve prognostic uncertainty after CA. In patients with PCABI, it is difficult to determine the actual severity of brain damage using only a clinical approach. This study, therefore, aimed to investigate the feasibility of cerebrovascular reserve capacity (CVRC) using cerebral autoregulation to determine whether patient final outcomes could be predicted within 72 h in a novel PCABI animal model with asymmetric hemisphere ischemia. As yet, no suitable animal models with characteristic behaviors and cerebral damage that adequately mimic clinical PCABI have been developed. Therefore, we established a chimeric model by increasing transient middle cerebral artery occlusion-mediated ipsilateral hemisphere damage in the 4-vessel occlusion (4VO) model, thereby inducing global forebrain asymmetric hemisphere ischemia. The severity of brain damage was evaluated using behavioral and histological approaches. In the chimeric model, acetazolamide (ACZ) was administered to examine cerebral autoregulation, revealing a decrease in vascular reactivity 24 h after modeling. In addition, endothelial-related markers were identified in histological, mRNA, and protein level analysis, revealing the mechanism of damage to cerebral autoregulation. At 24 h, increased inflammatory response and changes in DDAH/ADMA pathway were confirmed (decreased DDAH-1, increased ADMA) in the chimeric model. Finally, a brain protection effect and recovery of vascular reactivity were observed after TTM was performed for 2 h. In conclusion, these data suggest that the newly developed chimeric model effectively simulates the major characteristics of PCABI, such as comatose behavior and extensive brain damage, and that cerebral autoregulation is thus an appropriate tool for early prognostic evaluation in patients with PCABI. In addition, we confirmed a correlation between cerebral autoregulation and endothelial function, and the brain protection effect of TTM. Cerebral autoregulation may help discriminate the severity of damage in patients with PCABI, and future studies of new treatment strategies may be helpful.

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초록/요약

심정지후증후군(PCAS)은 병원 밖 심정지를 경험하는 환자의 68%와 병원 내 심정지 후 환자의 23%에서의 사망 원인인 심정지후 뇌손상 (PCABI)로 이어진다. 뇌는 체중의 2%에 불과하지만, 조직의 항상성을 유지하기 위해 총 심박출량의 15~20%를 받는다. 뇌조직의 생존 가능성은 일관된 산소 및 에너지 기질, 즉 포도당의 공급에 크게 좌우되며, 뇌혈류(CBF)의 중단은 뇌의 활동을 즉시 중단시킨다. 따라서 뇌는 예후에 가장 중요한 부분이며, 뇌손상의 정도를 조기에 예측하는 것이 가장 중요한 포인트가 될 것이다. 하지만 목표온도관리(TTM)이 시작될 때의 상태는 심정지 후 혼수상태와 매우 유사하기 때문에 TTM 기간 동안의 예후검사 방법은 아직까지 밝혀지지 않았다. 지금까지 예후 불확실성을 개선하기 위해 임상 검사, 전기 생리학적 연구, 혈액 생체 지표 및 신경 영상과 함께 목표 온도 관리(TTM) 기간(최소 72시간) 이후신경학적 결과를 평가하기 위한 다양한 접근법을 채택했다. 따라서 PCABI 환자의 경우 임상적 접근만으로는 실제 뇌손상의 심각성을 판단하기 어렵다. 본 연구는 PCABI 동물모델에서 최종 뇌손상 결과가 72시간 이내에 예측할 수 있는지 여부를 결정하기 위해 대뇌자동조절능을 이용한 뇌혈관 예비용량(CVRC)의 타당성을 조사하는 것을 목표로 하였다. 지금까지 임상 PCABI를 적절하게 모방한 특징적인 행동과 뇌 손상을 가진 적절한 동물 모델은 없었다. 4-혈관 폐색(4VO) 모델에서 일시적인 중뇌 동맥 폐색 매개 반구 손상을 증가시켜 전대뇌 비대칭 반구 허혈을 유도하여 키메라 모델을 설정했다. 뇌 손상의 심각도는 행동학 및 조직학적 접근법에 의해 평가되었다. 24시간 후 키메라 모델에서 아세트아졸아미드(ACZ) 투여하여 대뇌 자기조절능을 검사하였고, 이때 혈관 반응성 저하를 관찰하였다. 또한 조직학적 분석 및 mRNA, 단백질 수준 분석에서 내피 관련 인자를 확인하여 대뇌자동조절능에 대한 손상 메커니즘을 밝혀냈다. 키메라 모델에서 24시간째 염증 반응의 증가와 DDAH/ADMA 경로의 변화가 확인하였다(DDAH1 감소, ADMA 증가). 마지막으로, 2시간 동안 TTM을 수행한 후 뇌보호 효과(조직학적 세포사멸) 및 혈관 반응성 회복(대뇌자동조절능 및 내피 안정화)을 관찰하였다. 결론적으로, 우리의 데이터는 새롭게 제작된 키메라 모델이 혼수상태 행동과 광범위한 뇌 손상과 같은 PCABI의 주요 특성을 효과적으로 표현하고, 대뇌자동조절능이 PCABI 환자의 조기 예후 평가를 위한 적절한 도구임을 시사했다. 또한 대뇌자기조절능과 내피기능의 상관관계, 그리고 TTM의 뇌보호 효과도 확인하였다. 본 연구는 대뇌자동조절능을 통해 PCABI 환자의 손상 정도를 분별할 수 있으며, 향후 새로운 치료 전략에 대한 연구가 본 논문에서 도움이 될 수 있을 것이라 생각한다.

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목차

Ⅰ. INTRODUCTION 1
A. Cardiac arrest 1
1. Clinical significance of cardiac arrest 1
2. Current treatments for cardiac arrest: Targeted temperature management 2
B. Post-cardiac arrest brain injury 3
1. Epidemiology and clinical symptoms of post-cardiac arrest syndrome 3
2. Pathophysiology of post-cardiac arrest brain injury 4
3. Current animal model of PCABI 5
C. Current prognosis methods following cardiac arrest 5
1. Prognosis methods 6
2. Prognosis methods: clinical examination, brainstem reflexes 7
3. Prognosis methods: electrophysiology 8
4. Prognosis methods: biochemical markers 10
5. Prognosis methods: neuroimaging 10
D. A new perspective on prognostic evaluation: cerebral autoregulation 11
1. Cerebral autoregulation 11
2. Clinical evidence for cerebral autoregulation in acute brain injury 13
3. Acetazolamide as a vasodilatory stimulus 14
4. Impairment mechanism of cerebral autoregulation 15
E. Aims of this study 16
Ⅱ. MATERIALS AND METHODS 17
A. Ethics statement 17
B. Animal and general procedures 17
C. Animal models 18
D. Targeted Temperature Management (TTM) 21
E. Neurological behavior test 23
F. In vivo brain imaging 23
1. Cerebral autoregulation 23
2. MRI 24
G. Tissue sampling and region of interest 24
H. Immunohistochemistry 25
I. Cresyl violet staining 26
J. Western blot 26
K. RT-PCR 27
L. ELISA 28
M. Electrophysiology 28
N. Pupillary light reflex (PLR) 29
O. Human subjects 30
P. Statistical analysis 31
Ⅲ. RESULTS 36
PART Ⅰ. A novel global ischemia-reperfusion model simulating post-cardiac arrest brain injury 36
1. Establishment of a global ischemia-reperfusion model 36
2. Aggravated neurological function and brain damage in the chimeric model 43
PART Ⅱ. Implications of cerebral autoregulation as an early predictor in rat models with post-cardiac arrest brain injury 48
1. Pupil light reflex test as a prognostic factor in a global ischemia-reperfusion model 48
2. Electrophysiological examination as a prognostic factor in a chimeric model 50
3. Cerebral autoregulation as a prognostic factor in various ischemia-reperfusion rat models 55
PART Ⅲ. Expression of factors associated with cerebral autoregulation in sham and chimeric models 62
1. Correlation of cerebral autoregulation and inflammatory, blood-brain barrier (BBB) factor expression in sham and chimeric groups 62
2. Comparison of DDAH/ADMA/NO pathway in the sham and chimeric models 65
PART Ⅳ. Neuroprotective effect of targeted temperature management (TTM) in ischemia-reperfusion models 69
1. The effect of cell viability and inflammation in global ischemia-reperfusion model with TTM procedure 69
2. Changes in cerebral autoregulation patterns and related factors according to targeted temperature management 75
Ⅳ. DISCUSSION 83
Ⅴ. CONCLUSION 93
REFERENCES 94
국문요약 111

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